==================================== Iterators, generators and decorators ==================================== In this chapter we will learn about iterators, generators and decorators. Iterators ========= Python iterator objects required to support two methods while following the iterator protocol. *__iter__* returns the iterator object itself. This is used in *for* and *in* statements. *next* method returns the next value from the iterator. If there is no more items to return then it should raise *StopIteration* exception. :: class Counter(object): def __init__(self, low, high): self.current = low self.high = high def __iter__(self): 'Returns itself as an iterator object' return self def next(self): 'Returns the next value till current is lower than high' if self.current > self.high: raise StopIteration else: self.current += 1 return self.current - 1 Now we can use this iterator in our code. :: >>> c = Counter(5,10) >>> for i in c: ... print i, ... 5 6 7 8 9 10 Remember that an iterator object can be used only once. It means after it raises *StopIteration* once, it will keep raising the same exception. :: >>> c = Counter(5,6) >>> next(c) 5 >>> next(c) 6 >>> next(c) Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in File "", line 11, in next StopIteration >>> next(c) Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in File "", line 11, in next StopIteration Using the iterator in for loop example we saw, the following example tries to show the code behind the scenes. :: >>> iterator = iter(c) >>> while True: ... try: ... x = iterator.next() ... print x, ... except StopIteration as e: ... break ... 5 6 7 8 9 10 Generators ========== In this section we learn about Python generators. They were introduced in Python 2.3. It is an easier way to create iterators using a keyword *yield* from a function. :: >>> def my_generator(): ... print "Inside my generator" ... yield 'a' ... yield 'b' ... yield 'c' ... >>> my_generator() In the above example we create a simple generator using the yield statements. We can use it in a for loop just like we use any other iterators. :: >>> for char in my_generator(): ... print char ... Inside my generator a b c In the next example we will create the same Counter class using a generator function and use it in a for loop. :: >>> def counter_generator(low, high): ... while low <= high: ... yield low ... low += 1 ... >>> for i in counter_generator(5,10): ... print i, ... 5 6 7 8 9 10 Inside the while loop when it reaches to the *yield* statement, the value of low is returned and the generator state is suspended. During the second *next* call the generator resumed where it freeze-ed before and then the value of *low* is increased by one. It continues with the while loop and comes to the *yield* statement again. When you call an generator function it returns a \*generator* object. If you call \*dir* on this object you will find that it contains *__iter__* and \*next* methods among the other methods. :: >>> c = counter_generator(5,10) >>> dir(c) ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__doc__', '__format__', '__getattribute__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__iter__', '__name__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'close', 'gi_code', 'gi_frame', 'gi_running', 'next', 'send', 'throw'] We mostly use generators for laze evaluations. This way generators become a good approach to work with lots of data. If you don't want to load all the data in the memory, you can use a generator which will pass you each piece of data at a time. One of the biggest example of such example is *os.path.walk()* function which uses a callback function and current *os.walk* generator. Using the generator implementation saves memory. We can have generators which produces infinite values. The following is a one such example. :: >>> def infinite_generator(start=0): ... while True: ... yield start ... start += 1 ... >>> for num in infinite_generator(4): ... print num, ... if num > 20: ... break ... 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 If we go back to the example of *my_generator* we will find one feature of generators. They are not re-usable. :: >>> g = my_generator() >>> for c in g: ... print c ... Inside my generator a b c >>> for c in g: ... print c ... One way to create a reusable generator is Object based generators which does not hold any state. Any class with a *__iter__* method which yields data can be used as a object generator. In the following example we will recreate out counter generator. :: >>> class Counter(object): ... def __init__(self, low, high): ... self.low = low ... self.high = high ... def __iter__(self): ... counter = self.low ... while self.high >= counter: ... yield counter ... counter += 1 ... >>> gobj = Counter(5, 10) >>> for num in gobj: ... print num, ... 5 6 7 8 9 10 >>> for num in gobj: ... print num, ... 5 6 7 8 9 10 Generator expressions ===================== Generator expressionsGenerator expressions In this section we will learn about generator expressions which is a high performance, memory efficient generalization of list comprehensions and generators. For example we will try to sum the squares of all numbers from 1 to 99. :: >>> sum([x*x for x in range(1,10)]) The example actually first creates a list of the square values in memory and then it iterates over it and finally after sum it frees the memory. You can understand the memory usage in case of a big list. We can save memory usage by using a generator expression. :: sum(x*x for x in range(1,10)) The syntax of generator expression says that always needs to be directly inside a set of parentheses and cannot have a comma on either side. Which basically means both the examples below are valid generator expression usage example. :: >>> sum(x*x for x in range(1,10)) 285 >>> g = (x*x for x in range(1,10)) >>> g at 0x7fc559516b90> We can have chaining of generators or generator expressions. In the following example we will read the file \*/var/log/cron* and will find if any particular job (in the example we are searching for anacron) is running successfully or not. We can do the same using a shell command *tail -f /var/log/cron |grep anacron* :: >>> jobtext = 'anacron' >>> all = (line for line in open('/var/log/cron', 'r') ) >>> job = ( line for line in all if line.find(jobtext) != -1) >>> text = next(job) >>> text "May 6 12:17:15 dhcp193-104 anacron[23052]: Job `cron.daily' terminated\n" >>> text = next(job) >>> text 'May 6 12:17:15 dhcp193-104 anacron[23052]: Normal exit (1 job run)\n' >>> text = next(job) >>> text 'May 6 13:01:01 dhcp193-104 run-parts(/etc/cron.hourly)[25907]: starting 0anacron\n' You can write a for loop to the lines. Closures ======== Closures are nothing but functions that are returned by another function. We use closures to remove code duplication. In the following example we create a simple closure for adding numbers. :: >>> def add_number(num): ... def adder(number): ... 'adder is a closure' ... return num + number ... return adder ... >>> a_10 = add_number(10) >>> a_10(21) 31 >>> a_10(34) 44 >>> a_5 = add_number(5) >>> a_5(3) 8 *adder* is a closure which adds a given number to a pre-defined one. Decorators ========== Decorator is way to dynamically add some new behavior to some objects. We achieve the same in Python by using closures. In the example we will create a simple example which will print some statement before and after the execution of a function. :: >>> def my_decorator(func): ... def wrapper(*args, **kwargs): ... print "Before call" ... result = func(*args, **kwargs) ... print "After call" ... return result ... return wrapper ... >>> @my_decorator ... def add(a, b): ... "Our add function" ... return a + b ... >>> add(1, 3) Before call After call 4